Landforms describe the natural features of the Earth’s surface.
Canada has three landform regions:
Lowlands: Low-lying regions near sea level, good for farming.
Physiographic - areas with similar land features, like flat plains or frozen ground, grouped by scientists for study.
Three criteria used to help define and differentiate the regions are the following; geologic structure, how the permafrost (permanently frozen) is distributed, and the position of the treeline.
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Patterns: Repeated features in an area
Trends: How things change over time
Interrelationships: How different parts of an environment are linked and how they influence each other to form interconnected systems.
Geographic perspectives: Assess the board impact of issues to make well-rounded decisions.
Spatial significance: Evaluating a place’s importance by studying its geography and the different ways it matters to people, animals, and plants.
Geography issues have the following three main traits in common:
Complex: No simple answers, many causes and effects, myths and misconceptions may surround the issue.
Interconnected: Socio-cultural, environmental, economic, and political (S.E.E.P) factors, positive and negative impacts can be common.
Controversial: Often there will be differences in belief in how these problems started and how they can be solved, generally no one has an absolute solution/outcome that can please all parties involved.
StoryMaps are multimedia versions of the traditional map and include spatial data that is collected by researchers, satellites, geographers, and citizen scientists around the world.
Data is factual information such as measurements or statistics that are used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation.
Characteristics of a traditional world map: shows borders of each country, different colours for each country, labels for countries and major waters, and legend for distance and size.
Note: Maps show static stories of the world.
Characteristics of traditional world maps/StoryMaps: Shows borders, gives regional info, uses labels to clarify, includes a legend
Characteristics of a StoryMaps: Changeable view, non-linear info access, labeled, shows part of Canada, has a legend, contains informative links, includes images.
Note: Map allows users to interact and explore details dynamically.
Tectonic forces have their origin below the Earth’s surface while gradational forces occur on or above the Earth’s surface - wearing down over extended periods.
Plate tectonics is a theory that explains how the Earth’s surface is made up of big pieces called plates. These plates float on a softer layer underneath and move around, sometimes coming together, moving apart, or sliding past each other. Most of these plates are under the ocean because most of the Earth is covered by water. When oceanic plates move apart, magma from deep inside the Earth comes up and hardens into new rock, creating underwater mountains and valleys over a long time. This is how the mid-ocean ridge, a huge chain of underwater volcanoes and valleys, was formed. In places like Iceland, we can see where this has happened on land. When plates move towards each other, they can form mountains or one plate can slide under the other. This is how the Himalayas and parts of Cyprus were formed.
Gradational forces cause the earth to be weathered and eroded by wind, water, and ice. These forces can change or modify landforms created by tectonic forces.
The theory of plate tectonics tries to explain why and how our planet got its appearance.
The structure of the earth:
Crust
Mantle
Inter core
Outer core
Transform plate movement: The plates move in parallel but opposite directions. When the plates get struck and then suddenly released, it causes earthquakes.
Divergent plate movement: The plates move apart from each other. Magma rises to fill the gap, creating new land. This often happens under the ocean.
Convergent plate movement: The plates move towards each other.
Subduction: An oceanic plate slides under a continental plate, causing earthquakes
and possibly volcanic eruptions.
Collision: Two continental plates collide, causing rocks to fold and form new mountains.
The surface of Earth is always changing because of internal tectonic forces and external gradational forces.
Weathering: The process of breaking down rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth.
Three different types of weathering: physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.
Physical weathering > Freeze and thaw: Water enters cracks and holes on the surface of rocks. As the temperature drops, the water freezes and expands. This process is repeated until the rock falls apart.
Chemical weathering > Acid precipitation: Rainwater with chemicals can react with rocks, causing them to change and break down.
Biological weathering > Plant roots: Plant roots and other organisms can grow into cracks in rocks, causing them to break apart.
Oxidation - A chemical reaction that occurs when oxygen combines with another substance and creates oxides. Oxidation causes rocks to change colour and crumble over periods of time.
Erosion - Natural forces like wind, water, and ice wear away and move Earth’s materials.
Plate movement | Movement | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
Convergent | Plates move together | Mountains, volcanoes, and trenches | E.g. Rocky and Appalachian Mountains |
Divergent | Plates move apart | Mountains, volcanos, mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys. | E.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge |
Transform | Plates slide past each other | Earthquakes | E.g. San Andreas Fault |
There is no bigger global issue right now than climate change.
Weather is defined as the day-to-day changes in the conditions of the atmosphere. Weather is what happens in a specific location. Weather can often be unpredictable and changes very quickly.
Climate involves understanding patterns of weather conditions in a certain region over a period of time. Climate describes the weather history of a location.
There are four main factors that affect the climate patterns of a region, which include the following: latitude, winds, oceans, mountains
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time; climate is the average course of weather conditions for a particular location over a period of many years.
Climate change is caused by human activity and has resulted in shifts to stable patterns of climate around the world.
The Anthropocene is a geological time during which human activities have impacted the environment enough to notice extreme changes in the environment.
Greenhouse gases are gases like carbon dioxide and methane that trap heat from the sun in Earth’s atmosphere, causing it to warm. This is known as the greenhouse effect. Human activities, especially burning fossil fuels, increase these gases, enhancing the greenhouse effect and leading to global warming.
Climate change threatens Atlantic Canada with more storms, higher sea levels, and coastal erosion. This impacts coastal communities and key sectors like fisheries and tourism.
Climate change significantly impacts Central Canada, increasing heat-related illnesses in Quebec and Ontario due to warmer temperatures. This puts residents at risk from heat waves, smog, and diseases spread by changes in ecology.
Climate change threatens Canada’s Prairie region, impacting agriculture due to changing precipitation patterns. This leads to lower stream flows, falling lake levels, and increasing water deficits. The result is increased aridity, extreme weather events, and more pests and diseases, posing risks to agriculture and farm income in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan.
Climate change increases extreme weather events in Western Canada, leading to more forest fires, storm surges, and landslides. This affects critical infrastructure in British Columbia and Alberta, impacting forestry, tourism, and fisheries due to rising sea levels and changing river flows.
Climate change is impacting northern regions, affecting ecological, economic, and human systems. The infrastructure, reliant on the cryosphere, is vulnerable due to changing climate conditions. This affects the stability of buildings and pipelines.
Climate change is a slow process.
Canada borders three oceans and covers almost 10 million km². Canada is also part of G& which means “The Group of 7”. Canada is rich in freshwater, fish, energy, forests, soils, and minerals. All of these primary industries have the backbone of the Canadian economy.
Renewable - Resources that can be regenerated if used carefully.
Non-renewable - Resources that are limited and cannot be replaced.
Flow - Resources that are replaced by natural actions.
Title - Clear and concise title telling the reader what the map is all about.
Legend - A key that effectively explains all colours, symbols, lines, etc.
Scale - Ratio of distances to help readers understand size and distances.
Compass - A directional arrow to orient readers.
Colours/symbols/shapes - Features that highlight various trends/patterns to help the viewer interpret meaning.
The idea of sustainability was first introduced in the 1980s.
Sustainability is about meeting our needs without harming the future. It’s based on three parts: protecting the environment, improving people’s lives, and growing the economy in a way that doesn’t hurt nature. It’s important because it helps us tackle big problems like climate change and water scarcity. We need to act now to ensure a good future.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is defined as the total value of goods produced, and services provided in a country during one year.
GDP is directly tied to the natural resources and industries in Canada. There are various sectors in the Canadian economy, including the extraction of natural resources, manufacturing, construction, and providing services.
Primary: extractive industries that focus on getting raw materials for a variety of uses.
Secondary: manufacturing industries that focus on producing goods from natural resources.
Tertiary: industries that focus on providing services.
Quaternary: industries that focus on the transmission of ideas, research, and development.
Infographic - A visual that uses text and data to convey important information about a topic.
Primary energy production - The production of energy that is found in nature, before conversion or transformation. Primary energy production encompasses all forms of energy, including electricity and heat.
The oil sands are a mixture of sand, water, clay, and a type of oil known as bitumen. Thanks to technology, we can recover oil from the oil sands, providing energy security for the future. The oil sands are a non-renewable primary resource that is important to generating power in Canada.
Oil sands are recovered using the following two main methods:
Open-pit mining - Used for oil sands closer to the Earth’s surface
In situ drilling - Used for oil sands that lie more than 70 meters below ground
The method used depends on how deep the reserves are deposited.
How to know if the source you have is a good one or not?
Apply the C.A.A.R.P. test.
The letters stand for:
Currency – Is the information timely and up-to-date? A good website will be dated.
Authority – Where is the information coming from? Is this an author or organization that is qualified to give out information?
Accuracy – Is this information correct?
Relevance – Does this information answer your questions?
Purpose – Why is this information here? Are certain ideas or beliefs being promoted? Are certain products or services being sold?
Renewable examples: Wind energy, solar energy, tidal energy, biomass energy, etc.
Wind flow can be captured by turbines and converted into electricity.
The Sun's energy is directly captured. Various technologies are used to convert the sun’s energy and light into heat, illumination, hot water, electricity, etc.
Tidal energy converts the power of tides in big bodies of water into usable energy.
Biomass is fuel that is developed from organic materials.
The ecological footprint is the amount of productive land (measured in hectares) needed to support an individual’s lifestyle.
Global hectare (gha) is a unit of measurement which accounts for peoples’ biocapacity of their region and their daily activities and lifestyles. This unit of measurement is used to calculate ecological footprint.
Ecological footprints can be calculated on an individual, community, or country scale.
Ecological overshoot is the amount by which our resource demands exceed Earth’s supply.
The Canadian government takes a survey of its population every 5 years. This is referred to as a “census”.
For any population, growth is defined by the following relationship:
Formula: Population growth = natural increase* + net migration**
*natural increase = (number of births - number of deaths)
**net migration = (number of immigrants - number of emigrants)
Immigrants are people coming to settle permanently in a new country.
Emigrants are people leaving to settle permanently in a different country.
Negative population growth means there are fewer people being born or immigrating than are dying or emigrating.
Demography is the study of population. It includes the study of birth rates, death rates, migration, fertility rates, rates of natural increase, and population pyramids.
One of the biggest issues Canada is facing is its aging population. Older Canadians are now outnumbering younger Canadians for the first time in census history.
The distribution of human settlements in Canada is determined by many factors and may change over time.
Population density and population distribution are two very important demographic markers.
Population density is a measure of how crowded an area is. It is calculated using the following formula: Population density = Population ÷ Area
The two ways to increase the density of a population are to increase the population itself and decrease the area.
Population distribution is the pattern of where people live in a particular area. There are three common patterns of population distribution which are;
Linear - People living in linear patterns.
Dispersed - Population is scattered.
Concentrated - Organized in groups
Interprovincial migration is the movement of peop;e from one place to another place. Be it a province or territory. Ex. Ontario to Alberta
Interprovincial migration is the movement of people within a province or territory. Ex Toronto to Ottawa.
Historically, the economy in Canada was primarily agricultural, mining, and forestry. However, this focus has now shifted to industries producing goods and services.
Immigration has played a central role in shaping Canadian identity.
Immigrants to Canada come into the country under the following three board classes:
Family class - for family reunification through family sponsorship.
Economic class - for those skilled workers and people starting businesses in Canada.
Refugees - for asylum seekers who are fleeing persecution in their home countries.
The vast number of immigrants to Canada come under the following specific programs:
Family sponsorship - designed for those who have immediate family in Canada.
Start-up visas - designed for those who will start businesses and create jobs in Canada.
Express entry - designed for people who are skilled workers.
Immigrant applicants are judged based on a specific criteria, and if they meet these criteria, are eligible to apply under certain programs.
The federal skilled worker programs use six categories when determining eligibility. The six categories are the following: language skills, education, work experience, age, arranged employment, and adaptability.
Applicants are given ‘points’ based on criteria in each of these categories. If they manage to meet the minimum threshold of 67 points, they qualify for immigration.
The reasons due to which people may choose to leave their country of origin are referred to as push factors. Similarly, there are specific reasons due to which people are attracted to immigrate to certain countries. These reasons are referred to as pull factors.
People who are forced to flee their homelands due to persecution, war, or violence are known as refugees. These asylum seekers are forced to leave their home country due to dangers or threats. Also, they usually cannot safely and easily return to their home country.
Refugee: A person who has been forced to leave their country to escape persecution, or natural disaster.
Migrant: A person who moves from one place to another, especially to find work or better living conditions; a person who comes to live permanently in a foreign country.
Emigrant: A person who leaves their own country to settle permanently in another.
Asylum: The protection granted by a country to someone who has fled their native country.
Asylum seeker: A person who has left their home country as a political refugee, and is seeking asylum in another.
As a result of policies and cultural practices that discriminate against minorities based on ethnic and/or religious backgrounds, ethnic enclaves were created.
An ethnic enclave is a geographical area where a particular ethnic group is spatially clustered and socially and economically distinct from the majority group.
These enclaves served a stool to protect immigrants from potential hazards and violence, while allowing marginalized communities to come together in order to gain social and economic mobility. This redefinition of physical space and community continue to stand today in many cities around the world.
In the 1800s almost 90% of the world’s population lived in rural areas. As of 2018, 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas.
This is a phenomenon called urbanization and it has swept almost all parts of the world.
Urbanization is the process by which populations shift away from rural settings to cities and towns.
Some key factors that caused global urbanization to increase are;
Technology (farming, irrigation, etc)
Transportation (roads, railways, and ports, etc)
Commerce (trade of surplus goods)
Urban growth comes in the following two forms:
Growth in land area used for urban living
Growth in density within existing cities
Challenges for urbanization in Canada
Government funding for sustainable urban initiatives.
Government accountability for sustainable urban development policies.
Ability of populations to adapt to high density living and other sustainable initiatives.
Land use refers to the various functions that land serves in a community. Land is used differently in cities compared to rural areas.
Types of urban land use:
Transportation - Land that is used to move goods and people.
Residential - Land where populations live, which can consist of low, medium, and high-density areas. {i.e., low density meaning detached homes, medium density meaning townhouses, and high-density meaning apartment buildings.
Commercial - Land where goods and services are bought and sold.
Open space and recreational - Land that is open space or serves a recreational purpose for city dwellers.
Industrial - Land that is used for manufacturing and/or distribution of goods.
Institutional and public buildings - Land that is used to serve a public need.
Liveability refers to the degree to which a place is suitable for living. Different organizations and municipalities set criteria for liveability. Liveability is a complex and sometimes controversial term.
Urban intensification proitizes high-density development whereas urban sprawl promotes the outward growth of cities into areas that were not previously developed.
The rural to urban continuum shows the gradual change as you travel from completely rural to intensely urban areas.
Arguments in favor of urban sprawl
| Arguments against urban sprawl
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|---|---|
Arguments in favor of urban intensification
| Arguments against urban intensification
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A sustainable community is one that is economically, environmentally, and socially healthy and resilient. It meets challenges through integrated solutions and is focused on both the present and future.
Sustainability is key to the future of any community.
Communities face a wide range of challenges such as population growth/decline, unemployment, the need to protect green spaces while building homes, gridlock, air pollution, and natural or human-caused disasters.
Smart growth is an interdisciplinary approach to urban planning that is rooted in sustainable development principles. It is part of a movement called “new urbanism” that aims to reshape communities so they minimize environmental impacts and improve connectivity.
Smart Growth urban design proportions the following:
Mixed land uses - moving away from single land use zoning so that single sites have multiple land uses.
Diversity transportation choices and create pedestrian friendly neighborhoods - prioritizing connected neighborhoods that reduce fossil fuel dependence and car use. Create diverse transportation networks for cycling, strolling, and public transport.
Maximize population density and diversity populations - use compact building design to maximize density and create housing opportunities for a diversity of residents based on household types, family size, and incomes.
Preserve and maintain open spaces - farmland and important environmental areas.
Encourage citizen and stakeholder participation - in decision making processes to create fair and cost-effective development decisions.
